- In Odisha’s Kendrapara district, efforts to conserve the Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem have led to the demolition of illegal shrimp enclosures, highlighting a growing tension between shrimp farming and environmental protection.
- While conservation is crucial, farmers argue that shrimp farming is their only viable livelihood due to rising soil salinity and frequent cyclones.
- Experts suggest silvo-aquaculture, a sustainable approach that integrates shrimp farming with mangrove conservation, as a potential solution.
“We are not against conservation, but what about our survival?” asks Devdutt Sethi, a shrimp farmer from Rajnagar block of Kendrapara, as he recalls bulldozers ploughing through makeshift embankments in his village, two years ago.
Every summer, the forest department in Odisha’s Kendrapara district faces an uphill task — identifying and dismantling illegal shrimp gherries or enclosures. The drive, mandated by an Orissa High Court order, aims to protect the region’s fragile mangrove ecosystem.
Kendrapara is home to Bhitarkanika National Park, spread over 672 sq. km, where the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers merge, forming a fertile delta. The wetlands here sustain a vast biodiversity, making conservation efforts critical.
But for many shrimp farmers, these demolitions spell disaster, threatening their primary source of livelihood.
Caught between conservation and survival
Odisha has long been a hub for shrimp and fish farming, thanks to the state’s vast coastline spanning 450 kilometres. The state’s 418,000 hectares of brackish water resources have made aquaculture a viable livelihood, particularly as traditional farming becomes increasingly difficult due to saltwater intrusion and recurring cyclones.
Over the past two decades, Odisha has experienced significant expansion in brackish water shrimp aquaculture. The shrimp farming area has increased from 6,038 hectares to 17,730 hectares over the last two decades. However, as the state moves to enforce stricter environmental regulations and remove shrimp farms encroaching on mangrove areas, many shrimp farmers and labourers find their livelihoods at risk.
In an answer tabled in the Rajya Sabha in December 2024, Minister of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying Rajiv Ranjan Singh said that as many as 4,321 illegal shrimp gherries spread over 15,737.8 hectares were demolished near Chilika lake and Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary in Odisha.
“Our lives depend on shrimp farming,” says Sethi. He moved to shrimp farming after his agricultural land became infertile. “With repeated cyclones and rising salinity, traditional agriculture is no longer an option. My land does not yield much. So, I had to opt for the next best alternative that also provides enough returns to support the family,” he adds.
For most farmers in the region, the shift towards shrimp farming occurred due to the gradual decline of agricultural productivity, driven by soil salinity, frequent cyclones, and unpredictable weather patterns, leaving them with limited livelihood options. Over time, the shrimp farms also helped in reducing the seasonal distress migration from the region. But with shrimp farms being demolished and few alternative employment opportunities available, many fear that large-scale migration is inevitable.
“We have nearly 30 to 40 people employed here at the farms across 20 acres in our region,” says Raghvendra Mohanty, who started shrimp farming four years ago. “They will be forced to migrate if their jobs disappear. People have even contributed land for mangrove conservation, but the administration must find a balance between protecting nature and sustaining livelihoods.”
Mohanty, like many others, insists that not all shrimp farms harm the environment. “Our farm has been leased for 20 years and is located 50 kilometres away from the eco-sensitive zone. We ensure that water is properly treated before being released. We are willing to cooperate with the authorities, but they should also consider public interest before taking action.”
Apart from the impact on livelihoods, the farmers have also raised issues against procedural norms. Sethi shared his distress over the demolitions, claiming that due procedures are not followed and many farmers are losing their livelihoods due to unclear land classifications. “The forest department demolishes our farms without any prior notice. We do not even have time to raise our apprehensions or give any clarifications. There is no clear demarcation between forest land and private land in many of these cases for the department, leaving genuine farmers like us caught in the crossfire and struggling to protect our livelihoods,” he says.
Villagers also accuse the administration of bureaucratic delays in granting or renewing licenses. Coastal aquaculture in the state is governed by the Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA) regulations, which mandate the registration of new farms and the periodic renewal of licenses for existing ones under the CAA Act, 2005, and its recent amendment in 2023.
“Our applications are piling up at the district fisheries office. Many of us, especially young people who lost jobs during COVID-19, turned to shrimp farming. Now, they are tearing down our gherries, leaving us with nothing,” says Bharat Mandal, a shrimp farm owner from Badatubi village.
The administration, however, maintains that these concerns are either untrue or have been addressed.
“In our region specifically, a major issue is that of chemicals used in shrimp farms which seep into the mangrove forest with the water runoff. Mangrove ecosystems are extremely crucial considering how vulnerable our coastline is to climate change,” points out divisional forest officer, Sudarsana Gopeenath Yadav.
The Odisha State Fisheries Department, in partnership with the Odisha Space Applications Centre (ORSAC), has conducted geospatial mapping of the coastal regions. As part of this initiative, they have developed the Coastal Aquaculture Information System (COAST), a web portal and mobile application designed to assess and verify land suitability for prawn farming while ensuring that forest areas and eco-sensitive zones remain protected.
“It is a continuous process of identifying illegal shrimp gherries and we follow due procedures. There are guidelines — about the land identification, proximity to the eco-sensitive zone, etc., and based on these, the farms are identified. A notice is duly issued before demolition. In case of violations or a genuine plea against the demolition, there is scope for compensation too,” says Nilu Mohapatra, additional district magistrate of Kendrapara district.
Conserving the coastal wetland ecosystem
India’s second-largest mangrove forest, Bhitarkanika remains vulnerable to both human and natural pressures. Over the past 30 years, the region’s moderately healthy mangroves have declined by nearly 32%. The Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem is considered indispensable for the region, serving as a natural barrier against coastal storms, tsunamis, and cyclones.
“Additionally, it provides essential resources and services, including shoreline stabilisation, coastal protection from hazards, and being habitat for diverse species. Given the escalating climate vulnerabilities, preserving this ecosystem is imperative for our survival,” says Hemant Rout, secretary of Marine Turtle and Mangrove Conservation Society (MTMCS) in Kendrapara.
The interplay between mangrove conservation and coastal livelihoods in India has been a complex narrative, particularly since the 1990s, when the shrimp farming industry experienced rapid growth, leading to the conversion of vast stretches of coastal lands, including mangrove forests, into shrimp ponds. This expansion raised environmental concerns due to the degradation of mangrove ecosystems. Responding to environmental concerns, the Supreme Court of India, on March 27, 1995, prohibited the establishment of shrimp farms in coastal areas.
The following year, the Supreme Court imposed stringent restrictions on shrimp farming within the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). In 2005, the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act was enacted to regulate activities related to aquaculture in coastal areas, aiming to balance economic interests with environmental sustainability. Prawn cultivation is not allowed in ecologically sensitive zones under the CRZ notifications, issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA) Act, 2005 which regulates coastal aquaculture activities prohibits aquaculture in ecologically sensitive areas in Indian coast.
In 2021, the Orissa High Court acknowledged the widespread presence of illegal shrimp enclosures, in ecologically sensitive zones such as Chilika lake and the Bhitarkanika mangroves. In response, the Court instructed district authorities to accelerate the removal of these unauthorised structures to restore environmental balance.
However, the decision faced legal challenges from shrimp farmers who filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) the same year. In the first petition, nine individuals argued that they were cultivating shrimps on their own land without causing any environmental harm, emphasising that shrimp farming was their sole means of livelihood. The second petition, submitted by 17 individuals, claimed that they had developed ponds on their private land and were practising modern shrimp farming techniques. Meanwhile, the third group of 17 farmers asserted that their shrimp farming activities were lawful and conducted within legal parameters. However, in 2024, the High Court declined to entertain intervention petitions against these demolitions.
A sustainable alternative
As the conflict between conservation and livelihoods intensifies, experts argue that the state needs a structured model for co-management and a policy framework that promotes silvo-aquaculture, a sustainable approach that integrates shrimp farming with mangrove conservation.
Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming is also recognised as organic aquaculture, provided that deforested mangrove areas do not exceed 50% of the total farm space.
“Integrated shrimp farming is one of the most traditional methods of farming, with tidal waters, especially where mangroves already exist or where new mangrove plantations need to be introduced,” says R Ramasubramanian, senior fellow, Coastal Systems Research, MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF).
Countries like Vietnam and Thailand have successfully adopted mangrove-integrated shrimp farming to restore degraded coastal ecosystems while sustaining livelihoods. Similar efforts have also been made in states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
“In many places in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, a similar approach has been undertaken with small fishermen. The revenue department has given land for such aquaculture. Deeper ponds are dug and mangrove plantations are undertaken on the peripheries. The population per square metre is usually high, aeration required is less and even feed used are less since there are already small fishes, zooplankton, phytoplankton,” Ramasubramanian explains.
Research worldwide has highlighted mangrove-based aquaculture as a viable, nature-based solution to rejuvenate coastal economies where shrimp farming is a primary livelihood. This integrated approach ensures that both biodiversity conservation and shrimp farming can coexist, benefiting local communities in the long run.
Read more: Artisanal fishers of Rameswaram resist the polluting shrimp farms on the island
Banner image: A shrimp farmer shows his harvest in the Sundarbans, West Bengal. Representative image by India Water Portal via Flickr (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0).
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