- Trees outside forests play a critical role in rural agroforestry systems. They provide wood, fruits, fodder, improve soil fertility, regulate microclimates, and contribute to environmental and public health.
- However, developmental demands, policy gaps, ecological threats and competition from invasive species, and a decline in community-based management, pose severe threats to trees outside forests.
- Reorienting policy initiatives, incentivising agroforestry, strengthening monitoring systems for effective management and integrating trees outside forests into urban planning can enhance green infrastructure and public health.
- The views in the commentary are that of the author.
Trees Outside Forests (TOF) are trees that grow beyond legally notified forest boundaries. These include scattered trees on farmlands, roadsides, urban parks, small plantations, and homesteads across private, community, and government lands. They have been an integral part of human civilisation by playing a critical role in rural agroforestry systems, providing wood, fruit, fodder, and improving soil fertility. In urban areas, TOF are excellent agents to enhance landscapes, regulate microclimates, and contribute to environmental and public health benefits.
India has committed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ and restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Bonn Challenge. TOF are one of the essential components to achieve these goals.
Recognising the exceptional contribution and importance of TOF, the Forest Survey of India for the first time presented the report on TOF in its ISFR-2019 estimating an extent of 29.38 million hectares under TOF. Since 2021, the country’s total forest and tree cover has increased by 1,445.81 sq. km., with only 156.4 sq. km. attributed to the total forest cover. The majority of growth (about 89%) was from tree cover outside forest areas, accounting for nearly 1,290 sq. km.
In the ISFR 2023 report, trees outside forests help project an overall rise in India’s tree and forest cover, despite poor progress within the recorded Forest areas. Key tree species contributing to the TOF volume include mango (13.25%), neem (7%), mahua (4.37%), and coconut (4.2%), with Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, leading in tree cover area.
Many ecosystem services
Trees outside forests or TOF provide multifaceted ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, soil and water protection, and microclimate regulation. Beyond these environmental benefits, TOF also contribute significantly to rural livelihoods and food security, especially in developing countries where they can provide up to 20% of household income. Agroforestry systems relying on TOF sustain nearly 900 million tropical residents globally.
In the urban areas, they are the sole champion to enhance air quality, reduce stress, and offer aesthetic and recreational value. Despite these benefits, TOF are often overlooked in forest management and environmental policy especially due to their location and outside-forest distribution and smaller scale. Despite their significant contribution and immense potential, trees outside forests face several challenges that need urgent attention.
Overlooked and undervalued
Urbanisation, policy gaps, challenges in assessment and data, ecological threats and need for community engagement and research are some of the challenges facing the underappreciated trees outside forests.
Increasing urbanisation and developmental demands to meet anthropogenic pressures of various kinds are shrinking the available land for TOF in addition to depleting existing green cover. The end result of this “land squeeze” intensifies pollution and heat island effects, negatively impacting ecosystems and reducing the capacity of trees to provide essential environmental benefits. Ultimately the growing competition for space threatens TOF presence in both rural and urban landscapes and also make the new afforestation more difficult.
Despite their ecological, cultural, and economic importance, TOF remain largely overlooked and undervalued. A lack of clear, practical definition of “forest,” compounded by landmark legal rulings like the Godavarman case, discourages farmers, businesses, and communities from expanding tree cover outside notified forests. Insufficient policy protection, inadequate incentives, limited funding, and poor access to regulated markets has further undermined conservation efforts and sustainable management of TOF.
TOF also pose an inherently difficulty for their assessment mainly due to their scattered distribution across diverse land-use types, varying species composition, and age structures. Systematic documentation and reliable data on their extent, production, trade, and economic contributions are still largely missing or not adequately documented. Although the Forest Survey of India has initiated efforts to close these gaps, national databases continue to significantly underestimate TOF’s critical role in supporting rural livelihoods, timber supply, and ecosystem services.
TOF face serious ecological pressures from invasive exotic species like eucalyptus, Conocarpus, Prosopis, etc. which compete with native trees for resources and disrupt local ecosystems and biodiversity. The growing population’s demand drives the expansion of agriculture, which intensifies competition for existing land. This situation necessitates balanced land-use strategies that effectively harmonise food production with the growth of trees outside forests. In addition, climate change and soil degradation pose further risks by increasing tree mortality and impairing their growth, demanding adaptive management to sustain TOF’s resilience.
Community participation, once widespread, is now declining, which has negatively impacted TOF management by reducing maintenance efforts, eroding traditional knowledge, and weakening the sense of community ownership which are known to be crucial for successful conservation. Moreover, research on TOF remains neglected despite its importance to understanding ecological functions, economic benefits, and effective management approaches. Accelerated research can support improved policy frameworks, innovative restoration methods, and the development of livelihood opportunities linked to TOF.
Diverse benefits
Trees outside Forests (TOF) in India also present a wide array of opportunities that are vital for ecological, economic, and social development.
They enhance livelihoods and food security. TOF and agroforestry initiatives greatly improve income opportunities and food productivity for millions of rural and urban inhabitants. By integrating trees with farming and community landscapes, these programmes strengthen economic resilience and contribute substantially to India’s food security and sustainable rural development. The diverse benefits of TOF provide households with alternative sources of nutrition, fuel, and income, enhancing overall well-being.
They provide essential raw materials and economic contribution. TOF supply about 65% of India’s small timber, 70–80% of the wood used for furniture and construction, half of the nation’s fuelwood, and 60% of raw materials for the pulp and paper industries. By meeting these large demands, TOF play a vital role in easing pressure on natural forests and promoting the growth of a sustainable bioeconomy. This sector supports millions of livelihoods across rural and peri-urban India, reducing dependence on forest resources and fostering responsible resource use.
There is expanding recognition and agroforestry potential for TOF. The World Resources Institute India’s Restoration Opportunities Atlas identifies over 50 million hectares suitable for Trees on Farms (ToF) and mosaic restoration, particularly in rainfed agricultural areas. TOF’s ecological, economic, and social value is increasingly recognised by the Forest Survey of India, which now incorporates them into national assessments of tree and forest cover. This recognition reflects TOF’s expanding contribution to India’s green landscape and climate resilience goals.
There are progressive policies and market facilitation initiatives. India was the first country to adopt a National Agroforestry Policy in 2014 and has recently introduced model rules to simplify tree felling regulations on agricultural lands. These policy reforms encourage farmers to plant and manage trees alongside crops, delivering multiple environmental and economic benefits. Additionally, the recently introduced “One Nation, One Pass” initiative streamlines timber transportation permits across states, enabling smoother inter-state trade. This boosts farmers’ ability to market tree products, expand green cover, and support climate action through a transparent, efficient digital platform.
Technological advances in remote sensing, monitoring, and nursery development have empowered communities, NGOs, and private stakeholders to scale tree planting effectively across diverse locations. Growing environmental awareness, reinforced by Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes and government initiatives such as Nagar Van Yojana, encourage urban and institutional tree planting. In the increasing urbanisation scenario, TOF provide a golden opportunity to enhance community health, nutrition, and resilience against climate variability thereby strengthening social and ecological well-being throughout India.
Supporting India’s green ambitions
India stands out as one of the first tropical countries to regularly include TOF in its forest assessments since 1997. The government’s revised Green India Mission guidelines emphasise community-led afforestation beyond notified forests and promote assisted natural regeneration and eco-restoration.
To meet the 2030 degraded land restoration target, focused efforts on expanding TOF through agroforestry and sustainable land-use practices are essential, particularly in states with limited forest cover like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
We need to reorient our policy initiatives with due priority to participatory approaches that actively engage local communities and farmers in expanding TOF, alongside incentivising agroforestry through funding, technical support, and improved market access. Equally important is strengthening monitoring systems for accurate TOF data and effective management, while integrating TOF into urban planning can enhance green infrastructure and public health.
The expansion of TOF not only enhances carbon sequestration but also supports millions of livelihoods and urban well-being. With sustained policy focus, community involvement, and adequate resource allocation, TOF have the potential to transform India’s green ambitions and build resilient ecosystems for future generations.
The author is a former IFS officer and Advisor (Environment & Forest), Singareni Collieries Company Limited.
Banner image: Trees thriving around flyovers in Hyderabad. Insufficient policy protection, incentives, and funding often undermine conservation efforts and sustainable management of trees outside forests. Image by Mohan Chandra Pargaien.
Credits
