The second state-wide snow leopard survey in Himachal Pradesh has estimated 83 individuals, with the true number likely between 67 and 103. This marks an increase from 51 snow leopards recorded in 2021, according to a press release by the Himachal Pradesh Forest Department. The survey was conducted in partnership with the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) and covered six sites across the state’s 26,000 km² snow leopard habitat, including areas of both high and low density.

The survey, released on October 2, was completed in one year. The previous assessment, of 2021, had a timeline of three years. The recent survey used camera traps deployed strategically across rugged high-altitude terrain, including cliffs, boulder fields, and alpine scrub, to ensure representative coverage of all snow leopard habitats.

The increase in estimated snow leopard population may reflect actual growth but also results from refined survey methods, reduced movement of snow leopards in the second round, and improved habitat and prey availability.

Researchers recorded 44 unique snow leopards, photographed 262 times, with densities ranging from 0.16 to 0.53 individuals per 100 km², highest in Spiti and Pin Valley, followed by Upper Kinnaur and Tabo.

The survey also collected data on prey species, including blue sheep, Himalayan ibex, and musk deer, which are essential for snow leopard survival. Other mammals detected included Himalayan wolf, brown bear, common leopard, red fox, stone marten, mountain weasel, and yellow-throated marten. For the first time, the survey recorded the Pallas’s cat in Kinnaur and the rediscovery of the woolly flying squirrel in Lahaul, highlighting the broader biodiversity these high-altitude ecosystems support.

Local communities played a key role in the survey. Eight youth from Kibber village in Spiti, along with 15 community members, joined 20 frontline forest officers to help deploy camera traps and navigate difficult terrain. An indigenous women’s team from Kibber also supported data analysis. Many snow leopards were detected outside protected areas, including the Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary and Great Himalayan National Park, reinforcing the importance of community-based conservation in maintaining snow leopard habitats.

Speaking to Mongabay India, Preeti Bhandari, Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Himachal Pradesh, said the findings reflect the outcomes of recent conservation measures. “The snow leopard is the flagship species of our high-altitude ecosystems, and we remain committed to its protection. The latest results indicate that efforts undertaken in recent years are beginning to show positive outcomes. With Spiti Valley emerging as a key conservation landscape, our priority will be to work closely with local communities to strengthen and expand these initiatives.”

The survey provides a baseline for long-term monitoring and demonstrates a scalable model for snow leopard conservation across India. By combining scientific techniques, community participation, and efficient fieldwork, Himachal Pradesh has established a framework to guide future management strategies. The results also reinforce that conserving snow leopards benefits the wider ecosystem, including prey species and lesser-known carnivores, and supports the livelihoods of the mountain communities sharing space with these predators.

Banner image: Snow leopard captured in a camera trap during the survey. Image by Nature Conservation Foundation and Himachal Pradesh Forest Department.

The latest population status and trends of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) in the Lion-tailed Macaque Sanctuary, located in the central Western Ghats, signal that better, concerted conservation efforts can have positive impacts on endangered species. The 2022 assessment estimates 730 individuals in 41 distinct groups, 36 north and five south of the Sharavathi River, with the population trend remaining largely stable over the past two decades. According to the research paper titled Population Trend and Management Prospects for the Lion-tailed Macaque in the Sharavathi Lion-tailed Macaque Sanctuary, Central Western Ghats, India, this marks a rise from 640 in 2008. Earlier assessments showed that the population size remained between 617 and 640 individuals from 2008 to 2022, indicating stability.

The lead author of the paper, Honnavalli N. Kumara, principal scientist at the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, informs Mongabay India that the assessment showed that while the population was increasing, the LTM group sizes were decreasing. “Earlier assessments had shown the mean group size to be 24.7, which has now reduced to 17.8,” he says, adding that this is a good sign and indicates habitat health. “The LTM group sizes have their own threshold levels after which the groups split and disperse. If the habitat is not good, they will be forced to remain in large groups, which can lead to provisioning problems and altered social dynamics,” he explains.

The LTM faces significant threats, including habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, fragmented forest connectivity, roadkill, and electrocution from power lines. In addition, non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction, especially firewood and Garcinia fruits, has ecological impacts, the paper notes.

Kumara points out that restoration efforts by the forest department have had a positive impact on habitat health, which has favoured the population. He, however, warns that the Sharavathi pumped storage hydroelectric project threatens to fragment the LTM habitat. “In the latest estimation, one thing we did was superimpose the effect of this project on the map to show how it is going to impact the area,” he adds. The paper highlights the vulnerability of the southern groups, which remain more isolated and at risk, unlike the northern groups that are stable and near carrying capacity. Any additional fragmentation in the south could lead to local extinctions. “For better conservation, no more fragmentation of the habitat should happen,” Kumara says.

Once designated as the Aghanashini Lion-tailed Macaque Conservation Reserve, the area was later merged with the Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary to form the Sharavathi Lion-tailed Macaque Sanctuary, spread over 431 sq km. “At present, it is managed by three forest divisions, but for effective species management it would be better if a single management system under one DFO took charge. A unified management approach would ensure better conservation,” Kumara suggests.

Banner image: Representative image by Davidvraju via Wikimedia Commons (CC0 1.0).

Households with air conditioning in India are refilling their refrigerants more frequently than the global average, indicating a new potential area to improve energy efficiency and curb greenhouse gas emissions as cooling infrastructure scales up.

Air conditioners are fast becoming a staple among households in India. Demand for air conditioning has tripled since 2010 across income groups, driven by intensifying summers. India is estimated to add an additional 130 to 150 million new room ACs by 2035.

While the energy consumption of air conditioners has received considerable policy attention, AC leakage has largely gone under the radar. A new survey by the International Forum for Environment, Sustainability & Technology (iFOREST), finds that India required 31 million kilograms of cooling refrigerant in 2024. About 40% of households reported refilling their air conditioning units annually, when normally, air conditioners should be refilled once every five years, according to iFOREST.

Customers buying air conditioners are sensitive to the energy efficiency rating of air conditioners, preferring units with three stars or more, the survey found. However, 68% of customers complained about frequently refilling their units, costing between ₹1200 and ₹2300 for each refill. “Frequent refrigerant refills raise critical concerns about the quality of residential air conditioners services in the Indian market, in addition to user operation and maintenance practices,” says the report.

Refrigerants such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) used in air conditioners and other cooling devices are potent greenhouse gasses. HFCs were introduced in the 1990s to replace ozone-depleting refrigerants known as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Nearly all hydrofluorocarbons emissions can be traced to ACs and other refrigerants, contributing to 2% of global greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere.

AC units that leak consume more energy, several studies show. “For a majority of AC owners, the primary service experience is not about repair but being upsold an unneeded service, eroding confidence in technicians,” says the survey.

Improving service delivery and managing refrigerants in air conditioners through a unit’s lifecycle could reduce emissions by 650 million tonnes by 2035, according to iFOREST. “Refrigerant management includes measures to reduce refrigerant leakage, and to ensure proper removal for recycling or disposal. At the moment, we have rules and regulations around preventing refrigerant leakage,” said Chandra Bhushan, founder and CEO of iFOREST.

Banner image: A technician fixing an AC unit. Image by the Photo by Multitech Institute via Pexels.

Himachal Pradesh’s Spiti Valley has been designated as India’s first Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, a move that puts the trans-Himalayan landscape on the global conservation map. The decision was taken at the 37th session of UNESCO’s International Coordinating Council of the MAB Programme, held in Hangzhou, China, from September 26-28. With this, India now has 13 sites in UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Spread across 7,770 sq. km in Lahaul-Spiti district, the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve includes the Spiti Wildlife Division (7,591 sq. km) and adjoining parts of the Lahaul Forest Division, covering Baralacha Pass, Bharatpur and Sarchu. The reserve is organised into a 2,665 sq. km core zone, 3,977 sq. km buffer zone and 1,128 sq. km transition zone.

Congratulating the state forest department and its wildlife wing, Himachal Pradesh Chief Minister Thakur Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu, said, in a press release, “The state government is committed to protect and conserve Himachal Pradesh’s rich natural and cultural heritage and fragile ecology in the era of climate change, while ensuring harmony between developmental activities and nature.”

The reserve incorporates some of the region’s most important protected areas, including Pin Valley National Park, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Wetland and the Sarchu Plains. Situated at altitudes ranging from 3,300 to 6,600 metres, the cold desert ecosystem is shaped by extreme climate, rugged terrain and fragile soils.

Despite these harsh conditions, the landscape supports remarkable biodiversity. According to the state government’s release, the reserve harbours 655 herbs, 41 shrubs and 17 tree species, including 14 endemic and 47 medicinal plants central to the traditional Sowa Rigpa or Amchi healing system. Its wildlife includes 17 mammal species and 119 bird species. The snow leopard is the flagship species, supported by more than 800 blue sheep that provide a strong prey base. Other species found here are the Tibetan wolf, red fox, Himalayan ibex, golden eagle, Himalayan snowcock and bearded vulture.

Amitabh Gautam, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), said the UNESCO listing would bring global attention to Himachal’s cold deserts. “This recognition firmly places Himachal’s cold deserts on the global conservation map. It will enhance international research collaboration, promote responsible eco-tourism to support local livelihoods, and strengthen India’s efforts to build climate resilience in fragile Himalayan ecosystems,” he said.

The recognition also highlights the role of local communities, who have maintained traditional agro-pastoral practices and lived in close harmony with their environment for generations.

Banner image: Situated at altitudes ranging from 3,300 to 6,600 meters, the Reserve falls within the Trans-Himalaya biogeographic province of the Indian Himalaya. Image courtesy of the Department of Information and Public Relations, Himachal Pradesh

A dhole was recorded near Panshet in Pune district on the afternoon of September 6. This is the first confirmed sighting of the wild dog (Cuon alpinus) in Panshet, primarily a dam catchment zone with fragmented forests managed for water supply and tourism rather than biodiversity conservation.

The observation was made by Sonali Shinde, Head of the Department of Biodiversity and Environmental Science at Abasaheb Garware College, Pune, along with students of the department and Chinmay Sonawane, Field Researcher at the Ecological Society, Pune. The team encountered a single individual dhole along the forested slopes while returning from a field survey.

“The very first look — both of the dhole at us and us at the dhole — made us stand still, forgetting even to capture the moment,” the team recalled. “Almost immediately, as it moved to hide behind the trees, we managed to take a photograph. Before disappearing into the forest, it looked back at us — as if saying goodbye.”

The sighting is ecologically significant because it occurred outside formally protected areas. Dholes have been documented in nearby Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary and Tamhini. But their appearance near Panshet, less than 50 km from the bustling Pune city, underscores the need for ecological corridors linking protected and non-protected landscapes, the team has said in a note to the media.

The identification of the animal as a dhole was confirmed by wildlife biologist Pallavi Ghaskadbi, who has worked extensively on dholes. Mangesh Tate, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Pune forest department, also acknowledged, to the team, the possibility of dhole presence in the region.

“This record is of great ecological importance. It highlights that Pune’s landscapes continue to harbour unexpected biodiversity,” Shinde said, adding that exposing biodiversity students to such field studies and wildlife encounters strengthens both their academic learning and their awareness of conservation challenges.

Sonawane added that the sighting highlights the importance of the Western Ghats as a refuge for wide-ranging species and the need for continued monitoring of carnivore movement in the region.

Globally, the dhole is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List and included in CITES Appendix II, restricting its trade. With only around 2,000 mature individuals estimated worldwide, populations are threatened by shrinking habitats, prey depletion, and conflict with humans and livestock.

The Pune sighting is therefore more than just a wildlife record; it is a reminder of the need to protect habitats, enhance research and promote ecological education, says the team, which is currently in process of submitting a research note on the record to a scientific journal. Following the recent sighting, greater vigilance and systematic monitoring will be crucial, they note.

Banner image: Photographic evidence of an endangered dhole obtained for the first time from Panshet, a dam catchment area in Pune district. This is the first confirmed sighting of the dhole in this region. Image © Sonali Shinde.

Across the world, grasslands support unique biodiversity, provide ecosystem services and are a source of livelihood for nomadic and pastoral communities dependent on them. Grasslands also face multiple stressors including climate change, shifts in land use and land cover, and anthropogenic pressures.

However, there is a knowledge gap in the scientific understanding of Himalayan grasslands, hampering their effective management and impeding global synthesis under growing environmental change, notes a recently published paper on the long-term ecological monitoring of Kashmir Himalayan grasslands.

The lead author of the study, Manzoor A. Shah, a professor at the University of Kashmir, explains that the genesis of the work lies in the global emphasis on establishing long-term ecological observatories (LTEO). In 2015, a scientific committee was formed to establish these observatories for ecosystem monitoring in India and by 2019, with the approval of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), sites were set up across the country, including in Kashmir.

The study established a baseline for long-term ecological monitoring of Kashmir Himalayan grasslands by setting up permanent plots at three distinct sites and analysing ecological parameters such as species composition, biomass and carbon-nitrogen ratios.

“Three sites were established: one within a protected area and two outside the protected network. Each site was divided into three blocks, and each block into five plots. Fieldwork revealed a steep elevation gradient with significant ecological differences across sites,” Shah informs Mongabay India.

The three sites were Dachigam National Park (low elevation), Babareshi and Gulmarg (higher elevation). “The study also examined the distribution of functional groups: grasses, forbs and legumes,” Shah points out. Species composition and diversity varied notably across sites, with Dachigam at lower elevation exhibiting higher richness. “This could be due to its protected status and less anthropogenic disturbance,” he says. Dachigam also had predominant grass cover and biomass, while higher elevation sites had more forbs and legumes, reflecting adaptations to local climate and ecological gradients.

Aboveground biomass and carbon storage were significantly greater at Dachigam, indicating higher carbon sequestration potential in warmer, low-elevation grasslands. A strong negative correlation was found between aboveground and belowground biomass, with higher elevation sites investing more in root systems due to harsher conditions.

The study established a baseline that provides foundational data for future conservation, management strategies and climate change modelling in Himalayan grasslands. It highlights ecological differentiation between warm and cool temperate grasslands driven by elevation, climate and anthropogenic pressures.

Results emphasise the importance of protected areas for sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the role of long-term monitoring in understanding resilience and adaptation to climate change. “Sites that exhibit lower resilience and more vulnerability to climate change may require targeted policy interventions to enhance their ecological functions and carbon sequestration capacity,” the paper highlights.

Banner image: A view of the grassland in Dachigam National Park. Image by Umer Ikhlaq.