India, a global biodiversity hotspot, is home to 1,306 bird species, accounting for 12.5% of the world’s avifauna — bird species found in a particular region or habitat. Within this vast richness, Uttar Pradesh plays a pivotal role, hosting over 500 bird species across 31 designated Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs). Its wetlands, in particular, serve as critical ecosystems for avian populations.

Among these, the Saman Wetland Complex in the state’s Etawah and Mainpuri districts stand out as a vital bird sanctuary, offering crucial wintering habitats for migratory birds travelling across continents. Yet, despite its ecological importance, it remains inadequately studied, with significant gaps in avifaunal documentation.

A recently published study has now addressed this gap, and highlighted the anthropogenic pressures that over the past two decades have degraded this habitat. “This study aimed to evaluate the current status of waterbird populations and diversity within the wetlands,” says Omkar Joshi, senior project fellow at the Bombay Natural History Society, and one of the authors of the study.

Conservation and waterbird survey

The Saman Wetland Complex comprises the Saman jheel (wetland) and its satellite wetlands — Sauj, Sarsai Nawar lake, Kurra jheel, and Kuddaiyya marshland. Of them, Saman and Kurra wetlands are included as priority sites under India’s National Action Plan for Conservation of Migratory Birds and their Habitats along Central Asian Flyway (2018-2023).

All five wetlands are also designated as IBA, and attract large congregations of waterbirds, especially during the winter, including species such as the common teal (Anas crecca), northern pintail (Anas acuta), lesser whistling-duck (Dendrocygna javanica), and great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus). Many species observed here surpass the 1% biogeographic population threshold established by Wetlands International (2012), underscoring the wetlands’ global significance for bird conservation. Hence, Saman Bird Sanctuary and Sarsai Nawar were also declared as Ramsar Sites — wetlands designated for international conservation — in 2019.

To establish baseline data, researchers conducted an extensive survey, between January 2020 and November 2021, on waterbird diversity, population trends, and habitat threats in the area. The study, published in June 2024, included three winter seasons. The total count method was employed for waterbirds, with birds observed within an approximate 500-metre radius from the observer. For larger water bodies, simultaneous counts were conducted by multiple observers to ensure accuracy. Landbirds were recorded opportunistically whenever encountered within the wetland or flying overhead. Observations were carried out during high-activity periods — starting at sunrise in the mornings and in the evenings until sunset — to capture key roosting and foraging behaviours.

Bird species were identified using BirdLife International (2021) nomenclature, and their conservation status was assessed in accordance with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Threats and disturbances to the wetlands were also recorded based on the observations during the survey as well as information obtained from the local people, bird watchers, and forest department staff.

Findings unveiled

The study recorded 126 bird species across 18 orders and 41 families, including 70 waterbird species. Of these, 34 were migratory, and 36 were resident. The Anatidae family (ducks, geese and swans) had the maximum number of species (17), followed by Scolopacidae (snipes, curlews and sandpipers) with 12.

Seven species belonged to the endangered and vulnerable categories of the IUCN Red List. Key among them were the sarus crane (Grus antigone), steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), common pochard (Aythya ferina) and Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus). Other notable sightings included large roosting populations of the western yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava) and citrine wagtail (Motacilla citreola) in February 2020, a murmuration of rosy starlings (Pastor roseus) in November 2021, and the nesting activity of black-necked storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus), with two nests documented at Saman Bird Sanctuary and one at Sarsai Nawar in the same year.

The highest diversity of waterbirds was recorded at Sarsai Nawar, with 63 species, followed by Saman Bird Sanctuary with 52 species. In contrast, Kuddaiyya marshland showed the lowest diversity, with only 30 species documented. Across the Saman Wetland Complex, 58 landbird species were also recorded, with Sarsai Nawar again emerging as the most diverse site, followed by Saman Bird Sanctuary.

In January 2020, Saman Bird Sanctuary recorded a single-day count of 8,210 waterbirds. These figures, however, are a stark reminder of a declining trend. “In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the wetlands regularly supported over 20,000 birds,” says Joshi. “Over the years, waterbird populations have plummeted by more than 50%. Wetlands like Kurra jheel and Kuddaiyya marshland have suffered even more severe degradation, with Kurra jheel now reduced to little more than a small pond.”

Threatened species, including the sarus crane and black-necked stork, face increasing challenges from habitat loss and human activities. “Due to limited historical data, we cannot compare the diversity of the wetlands, but there is clear evidence of declining bird populations. The Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) has disappeared entirely, and vultures, once common, have seen drastic reductions. Even the sarus crane, previously abundant, is now under threat. However, Sarsai Nawar lake remains a crucial roosting site for this species,” says Joshi.

Threats to the wetlands

According to the study, Saman Wetland Complex faces immense pressure from human activities. Agricultural encroachment during the dry seasons has led to substantial habitat loss, while the excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides results in nutrient runoff. This has accelerated the spread of invasive species such as water hyacinth, which reduce open water surfaces and deplete dissolved oxygen levels, making the wetlands unsuitable for many waterbird species.

Eutrophication — a process that occurs when a waterbody is enriched with nutrients causing algae overgrowth and oxygen depletion, thus harming aquatic life — has particularly impacted wetlands such as Kurra jheel and Kuddaiyya marshland, where dense vegetation has replaced open water habitats. Other issues, including siltation, livestock grazing, lotus tuber collection, and improper waste disposal, exacerbate habitat degradation. “Occasional poaching, disturbances from free-ranging dogs, and community conflicts over land compensation create additional challenges,” says Joshi. “Moreover, infrastructure such as high-tension wires pose significant risks, especially for large birds like the sarus crane.”

Conservation imperatives

The researchers recommend that restoration efforts should prioritise stricter protection policies, active community engagement, and large-scale habitat restoration. Additionally, regular monitoring and adaptive management strategies are essential for maintaining long-term ecological balance.

Evidence suggests that wetland restoration activities can yield tangible results. “While Kurra jheel and Kuddaiyya marshland are severely degraded, other wetlands still have potential for recovery. For instance, local residents reported that desilting at Sarsai Nawar lake increased water retention and led to a noticeable rise in bird populations, particularly ducks, the following year,” says Joshi. Other initiatives — such as removing invasive plants, controlling agricultural encroachment, and improving waste management — could significantly enhance wetland conditions across the complex.

Read more: [Commentary] India establishes the largest network of Ramsar sites in South Asia

Banner image: A black-necked stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) laps up water from an irrigation canal in Mainpuri district, Uttar Pradesh. Two nests of this species were documented at Saman Bird Sanctuary in 2021, and one in Sarsai Nawar. Image by Sarusscape via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0).

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Aditi Tandon Senior Production Editor

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BirdsWetlandsUttar Pradesh

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