Households with air conditioning in India are refilling their refrigerants more frequently than the global average, indicating a new potential area to improve energy efficiency and curb greenhouse gas emissions as cooling infrastructure scales up.

Air conditioners are fast becoming a staple among households in India. Demand for air conditioning has tripled since 2010 across income groups, driven by intensifying summers. India is estimated to add an additional 130 to 150 million new room ACs by 2035.

While the energy consumption of air conditioners has received considerable policy attention, AC leakage has largely gone under the radar. A new survey by the International Forum for Environment, Sustainability & Technology (iFOREST), finds that India required 31 million kilograms of cooling refrigerant in 2024. About 40% of households reported refilling their air conditioning units annually, when normally, air conditioners should be refilled once every five years, according to iFOREST.

Customers buying air conditioners are sensitive to the energy efficiency rating of air conditioners, preferring units with three stars or more, the survey found. However, 68% of customers complained about frequently refilling their units, costing between ₹1200 and ₹2300 for each refill. “Frequent refrigerant refills raise critical concerns about the quality of residential air conditioners services in the Indian market, in addition to user operation and maintenance practices,” says the report.

Refrigerants such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) used in air conditioners and other cooling devices are potent greenhouse gasses. HFCs were introduced in the 1990s to replace ozone-depleting refrigerants known as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Nearly all hydrofluorocarbons emissions can be traced to ACs and other refrigerants, contributing to 2% of global greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere.

AC units that leak consume more energy, several studies show. “For a majority of AC owners, the primary service experience is not about repair but being upsold an unneeded service, eroding confidence in technicians,” says the survey.

Improving service delivery and managing refrigerants in air conditioners through a unit’s lifecycle could reduce emissions by 650 million tonnes by 2035, according to iFOREST. “Refrigerant management includes measures to reduce refrigerant leakage, and to ensure proper removal for recycling or disposal. At the moment, we have rules and regulations around preventing refrigerant leakage,” said Chandra Bhushan, founder and CEO of iFOREST.

Banner image: A technician fixing an AC unit. Image by the Photo by Multitech Institute via Pexels.

Himachal Pradesh’s Spiti Valley has been designated as India’s first Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, a move that puts the trans-Himalayan landscape on the global conservation map. The decision was taken at the 37th session of UNESCO’s International Coordinating Council of the MAB Programme, held in Hangzhou, China, from September 26-28. With this, India now has 13 sites in UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Spread across 7,770 sq. km in Lahaul-Spiti district, the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve includes the Spiti Wildlife Division (7,591 sq. km) and adjoining parts of the Lahaul Forest Division, covering Baralacha Pass, Bharatpur and Sarchu. The reserve is organised into a 2,665 sq. km core zone, 3,977 sq. km buffer zone and 1,128 sq. km transition zone.

Congratulating the state forest department and its wildlife wing, Himachal Pradesh Chief Minister Thakur Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu, said, in a press release, “The state government is committed to protect and conserve Himachal Pradesh’s rich natural and cultural heritage and fragile ecology in the era of climate change, while ensuring harmony between developmental activities and nature.”

The reserve incorporates some of the region’s most important protected areas, including Pin Valley National Park, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Wetland and the Sarchu Plains. Situated at altitudes ranging from 3,300 to 6,600 metres, the cold desert ecosystem is shaped by extreme climate, rugged terrain and fragile soils.

Despite these harsh conditions, the landscape supports remarkable biodiversity. According to the state government’s release, the reserve harbours 655 herbs, 41 shrubs and 17 tree species, including 14 endemic and 47 medicinal plants central to the traditional Sowa Rigpa or Amchi healing system. Its wildlife includes 17 mammal species and 119 bird species. The snow leopard is the flagship species, supported by more than 800 blue sheep that provide a strong prey base. Other species found here are the Tibetan wolf, red fox, Himalayan ibex, golden eagle, Himalayan snowcock and bearded vulture.

Amitabh Gautam, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), said the UNESCO listing would bring global attention to Himachal’s cold deserts. “This recognition firmly places Himachal’s cold deserts on the global conservation map. It will enhance international research collaboration, promote responsible eco-tourism to support local livelihoods, and strengthen India’s efforts to build climate resilience in fragile Himalayan ecosystems,” he said.

The recognition also highlights the role of local communities, who have maintained traditional agro-pastoral practices and lived in close harmony with their environment for generations.

Banner image: Situated at altitudes ranging from 3,300 to 6,600 meters, the Reserve falls within the Trans-Himalaya biogeographic province of the Indian Himalaya. Image courtesy of the Department of Information and Public Relations, Himachal Pradesh

A dhole was recorded near Panshet in Pune district on the afternoon of September 6. This is the first confirmed sighting of the wild dog (Cuon alpinus) in Panshet, primarily a dam catchment zone with fragmented forests managed for water supply and tourism rather than biodiversity conservation.

The observation was made by Sonali Shinde, Head of the Department of Biodiversity and Environmental Science at Abasaheb Garware College, Pune, along with students of the department and Chinmay Sonawane, Field Researcher at the Ecological Society, Pune. The team encountered a single individual dhole along the forested slopes while returning from a field survey.

“The very first look — both of the dhole at us and us at the dhole — made us stand still, forgetting even to capture the moment,” the team recalled. “Almost immediately, as it moved to hide behind the trees, we managed to take a photograph. Before disappearing into the forest, it looked back at us — as if saying goodbye.”

The sighting is ecologically significant because it occurred outside formally protected areas. Dholes have been documented in nearby Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary and Tamhini. But their appearance near Panshet, less than 50 km from the bustling Pune city, underscores the need for ecological corridors linking protected and non-protected landscapes, the team has said in a note to the media.

The identification of the animal as a dhole was confirmed by wildlife biologist Pallavi Ghaskadbi, who has worked extensively on dholes. Mangesh Tate, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Pune forest department, also acknowledged, to the team, the possibility of dhole presence in the region.

“This record is of great ecological importance. It highlights that Pune’s landscapes continue to harbour unexpected biodiversity,” Shinde said, adding that exposing biodiversity students to such field studies and wildlife encounters strengthens both their academic learning and their awareness of conservation challenges.

Sonawane added that the sighting highlights the importance of the Western Ghats as a refuge for wide-ranging species and the need for continued monitoring of carnivore movement in the region.

Globally, the dhole is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List and included in CITES Appendix II, restricting its trade. With only around 2,000 mature individuals estimated worldwide, populations are threatened by shrinking habitats, prey depletion, and conflict with humans and livestock.

The Pune sighting is therefore more than just a wildlife record; it is a reminder of the need to protect habitats, enhance research and promote ecological education, says the team, which is currently in process of submitting a research note on the record to a scientific journal. Following the recent sighting, greater vigilance and systematic monitoring will be crucial, they note.

Banner image: Photographic evidence of an endangered dhole obtained for the first time from Panshet, a dam catchment area in Pune district. This is the first confirmed sighting of the dhole in this region. Image © Sonali Shinde.

Across the world, grasslands support unique biodiversity, provide ecosystem services and are a source of livelihood for nomadic and pastoral communities dependent on them. Grasslands also face multiple stressors including climate change, shifts in land use and land cover, and anthropogenic pressures.

However, there is a knowledge gap in the scientific understanding of Himalayan grasslands, hampering their effective management and impeding global synthesis under growing environmental change, notes a recently published paper on the long-term ecological monitoring of Kashmir Himalayan grasslands.

The lead author of the study, Manzoor A. Shah, a professor at the University of Kashmir, explains that the genesis of the work lies in the global emphasis on establishing long-term ecological observatories (LTEO). In 2015, a scientific committee was formed to establish these observatories for ecosystem monitoring in India and by 2019, with the approval of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), sites were set up across the country, including in Kashmir.

The study established a baseline for long-term ecological monitoring of Kashmir Himalayan grasslands by setting up permanent plots at three distinct sites and analysing ecological parameters such as species composition, biomass and carbon-nitrogen ratios.

“Three sites were established: one within a protected area and two outside the protected network. Each site was divided into three blocks, and each block into five plots. Fieldwork revealed a steep elevation gradient with significant ecological differences across sites,” Shah informs Mongabay India.

The three sites were Dachigam National Park (low elevation), Babareshi and Gulmarg (higher elevation). “The study also examined the distribution of functional groups: grasses, forbs and legumes,” Shah points out. Species composition and diversity varied notably across sites, with Dachigam at lower elevation exhibiting higher richness. “This could be due to its protected status and less anthropogenic disturbance,” he says. Dachigam also had predominant grass cover and biomass, while higher elevation sites had more forbs and legumes, reflecting adaptations to local climate and ecological gradients.

Aboveground biomass and carbon storage were significantly greater at Dachigam, indicating higher carbon sequestration potential in warmer, low-elevation grasslands. A strong negative correlation was found between aboveground and belowground biomass, with higher elevation sites investing more in root systems due to harsher conditions.

The study established a baseline that provides foundational data for future conservation, management strategies and climate change modelling in Himalayan grasslands. It highlights ecological differentiation between warm and cool temperate grasslands driven by elevation, climate and anthropogenic pressures.

Results emphasise the importance of protected areas for sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the role of long-term monitoring in understanding resilience and adaptation to climate change. “Sites that exhibit lower resilience and more vulnerability to climate change may require targeted policy interventions to enhance their ecological functions and carbon sequestration capacity,” the paper highlights.

Banner image: A view of the grassland in Dachigam National Park. Image by Umer Ikhlaq.

The presence of the shy, elusive Eurasian otter has been confirmed, for the first time, in Goa, offering hope that all three otter species endemic to India are found in the coastal state.

The sighting was made earlier this year, in February and published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa on August 28. While the smooth-coated otter and the small-clawed otter are both found in Goa, the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) had not been recorded before. “When we rescued the otter, we first assumed it to be a smooth coated otter, but noticed there was something different about its appearance,” said Charan Desai, a wildlife rescuer based in Goa, who spotted the otter. The Eurasian otter can be distinguished by a “W” shaped rhinarium (the furless skin surrounding its nostrils).

The otter was found injured on the road in the state’s Dharbandoda area, at the edge of the Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary. The area is surrounded by semi-evergreen forest patches, agricultural land, and closed stone quarries. Seasonal streams and rivulets in the area are connected to the Ragada river and Zuari river basin. “Habitat wise, Eurasian otters like streams with rocky patches, and banks with thick vegetation. This is the same as small-clawed otters and therefore they can exist sympatrically,” explained Katrina Fernandez, co-founder and chief ecologist of Wild Otters, a conservation organisation based in Goa.

Tragically, the otter succumbed to its injuries a day after it was rescued, likely due to a collision with a vehicle. Otters are threatened by habitat degradation, wetland disappearance, water pollution, and even conflict with humans over a common resource – fish. They are a keystone species whose presence is a sign of indicator of ecosystem health. “Waste from sewage lines, especially from hotels, is often dumped directly into rivers, which is a major threat for otters,” said Desai.

The Eurasian otter is more elusive and solitary than the other two species found in India, making it harder to spot. It is typically found in the Western and Eastern Himalayas, like the small-clawed otter. The smooth coated otter has a wider distribution across the country.

According to Fernandez, it’s important to conduct further studies before declaring the Eurasian otter’s presence in Goa. “I prefer to be cautious because otters are known to be traded as pets, and it’s imperative to make sure they are there in more numbers and that this one individual was not here because of some outside factors,” she said, adding,” First, it’s important to do some more research, find out where they are present, and then use the information for further protection of the habitats they might be in.”

Banner image: Representative image of a Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) from central India. Image by Aditya4wiki via Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 4.0].

The potential recovery of caracal (Caracal caracal) in its historic habitat of Rajasthan’s Ramgarh Visdhari Tiger Reserve (RVTR), from where it was considered locally extinct, has filled the scientific community with renewed hope. Camera-trap images captured a caracal at RVTR between mid-December and January this year. In April this year, Mongabay India also reported a sighting at the Mukundara Hills Tiger Reserve (MHTR) in Kota, Rajasthan. Scientists say they believe it is the same individual — a dispersing sub-adult male seeking to establish territory.

Once widespread across India’s semi-arid zones, the caracal has lost over 90% of its historical range due to habitat destruction in the past century. The current findings, the first camera-trap records of caracals in RVTR and MHTR, suggest that they could be expanding beyond the two previously recognised areas of Kachchh in Gujarat and Ranthambhore-Kailadevi-Dholpur in Rajasthan.

One of the authors of the study, Ayan Sadhu of the Wildlife Institute of India, notes that the landscape once hosted caracals until populations went locally extinct. He points to two reasons: already small populations prone to extinction through genetic bottlenecks, and antagonistic interactions with humans and carnivores, including feral dogs. Most importantly, these areas were not surveyed earlier. Systematic camera-trapping now makes detection possible. “Caracals, who could have been present in very low numbers here, escaped detection,” he says. The research was published by the Wildlife Institute of India and supported by the Rajasthan Forest Department.

Identifying caracals from camera-trap photos is difficult. But based on timing and linear movement through successive areas, researchers conclude this is likely a dispersing sub-adult male. “Caracals are long-ranging cats,” explains Sadhu. “In Africa, their home ranges reach 700 sq. km in desert landscapes, and in Namibia, 15-20 sq. km. In my PhD work in Ranthambore, I saw them shift 10-20 km between valleys year to year. They do not remain confined to one patch.”

Dispersal happens either to establish territory or to find mates. But despite long-term camera-trap efforts since 2018, no resident caracals were recorded in these areas. “So, while habitat exists, the likelihood of this individual finding a mate is very low. If no mate is found, the outcome is uncertain. Dispersal is always risky,” Sadhu says.

For nocturnal, small cats like caracals, risks include snaring, road accidents, and other human threats. They favour open forests and scrub habitats, intersected by roads and railways, where many roadkills are reported. The same camera-trap sites also recorded tigers, leopards, hyenas, golden jackals, jungle cats, Asiatic wildcats, and rusty-spotted cats.

These findings signal a potential return of caracals to areas where they were considered extinct, emphasise the value of systematic camera-trapping, and underscore the need for dedicated ecological and behavioural surveys. “This recent dispersal is a hopeful sign. It suggests Ranthambore still has the ecological potential to produce dispersing individuals, and perhaps recolonise old habitats,” Sadhu says.

Banner image: The camera trap image of the caracal at RVTR. Image by Thakar et al. 2025